The Woodland Environment
Working respectfully in a woodland, or any natural setting, requires a good level of knowledge of the structures and organisms found in that place. Every outdoors educator must become familiar with the specific settings they will be working in, to know how the seasons, inhabitants, and they themselves will be having an impact on that environment. While returning to the same woodland day-on-day makes it impossible to follow a ‘leave no trace’ policy, minimising the damage done to a woodland setting must be our driving thought.
It will be up to individual educators to create resources for their own practice such as environmental impact assessments, identification guides, and development plans. However, in this section of the website can be found some general information related to this area.
Broadleaf woodland
Broadleaf (deciduous) woodland is the most ecologically diverse type in the British Isles, and there are many variations of deciduous forest across the country. Broadleaf forests generally occupy temperate areas with rich soil, reliable rainfall, and no excessive snow load in winter. Trees may be native, but many woodlands contain a significant ratio of non-native and naturalised species, including sycamore, plane, cedar, copper beech and both sweet and horse chestnut. Hardwoods, such as slow-growing oak, beech, maple, sweet chestnut, and walnut produce a heavy crop of nuts which feed a variety of birds and mammals, and produce young trees in a wide berth around parent trees (further, when nuts are carried by fauna). Additionally, fast-growing, softer-wooded trees such as ash, chestnut, birch, hazel, aspen, tilia (linden, or lime) readily produce basal shoots (suckers), especially in response to damage such as windfall, fire, disease, and cutting. In a naturalised forest, this growth form prolongs the life of individual specimens and produces significant understory, as there will be stems of various ages and heights occupying space around taller, single-trunk canopy trees.
The understory, plus the presence of fallen deadwood and deep loam and leaf matter, produces significant habitat for fauna. Due to the variation in light levels throughout the year, some woody and herbaceous plants take advantage by coming into their prime early in the year, before the canopy leafs in and significant light no longer reaches the forest floor. Therefore, deciduous woodland changes significantly season to season, and provides opportunity for the greatest biodiversity of all British woodlands. Broadleaf forests may be planted and managed, however they naturally occur (or expand) through succession, where species gradually move into an area beginning with ground layer plants, then field layer, shrub layer, and finally, a canopy forms as the branches of mature trees begin to meet at height. Different species of flora and fauna (including birds, mammals, invertebrates, herpetofauna) also move into the woodland in succession to occupy the various layers, though integration of these ecological niches are important for a healthy forest ecosystem, and corridors of natural lands between wooded areas are crucial to ensure migration, and genetic diversity among fauna.
Coniferous woodland
Coniferous woodland is far less ecologically diverse than deciduous woodland. In the UK, coniferous forest is generally limited to small planted stands of evergreen trees (which include several species of pine, spruce, fir, and larch) or large plantations managed by the timber industry. Coniferous woodland experiences far less seasonal variation, with light levels remaining generally the same year-round. Soil in these woodlands tends to be poor and acidic, and while natural evergreen forests may be populated with a good variety of trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants, and fauna, that thrive in this environment, managed plantations are a monoculture where individuals are planted too close together (to straighten timber) for other species to intermingle. Plantations tend to be stripped of their understory, and companion plants are limited to woodland margins, where biodiversity is at its greatest. Within the plantations is a veritable desert, with little to tempt fauna to make their home there, apart from shelter. Conifers, however, will thrive in conditions that most deciduous trees would struggle in, better adapted as they are for thin and nutrient-poor soil, heavier snow and prolonged freezing temperatures, hence their greater abundance at northern latitudes in the UK and across the Northern Hemisphere.
Woodland Management Methods
British forests generally require direct management to maintain health, as they are the product of arboriculture and have not been able to achieve natural stability through succession. They are also compromised by invasive species, overpopulation and lack of apex predators. Management additionally allows forests to be more useful in that they become more safe and accessible to users and produce forest products such as charcoal and timber. Management techniques include, but are not limited to:
Coppicing
This is an ancient and sustainable technique where particular tree varieties, such as ash, alder and hazel, are cut nearly to ground level (creating the ‘stool’) over the winter months when the sap is down to force the quick growth of basal shoots (suckers) in the spring when the sap rises. Newly pruned stools are protected from grazing with piled-on offcuts (brash), which additionally provides habitat for small fauna and returns nutrients to the soil with decomposition. These shoots are allowed to grow a set number of years, depending on desired thickness. These are cut back and the process repeated. A ‘copse’ is usually managed in rotation, so that wood is harvested regularly, and to maintain structural diversity in the woodland. A copse can be in use for many years, and overstood trees (when they are simply allowed to keep growing) will become large, multi-trunk specimens in a mixed canopy woodland. Throughout much of British history, copses were essential resources for communities throughout the country, providing a nut harvest, building materials, fuel, shafts for weapons and tools, and live wood for wood-turning and furniture making, locally known as ‘bodging’.
Pollarding
This is a type of coppicing where the trunks of trees are allowed to reach head height or taller, and only emerging branches are removed. This acts as a grazing defence, and is especially helpful for willow or other withy woods. Forest School participants will likely have encountered pollarding along city avenues and riverbanks, and may find the practice shocking as it appears damaging to the tree. Opportunity for explanation/understanding is important.
Opening up the forest
A healthy natural forest includes areas with various levels of light, temperature, and air circulation. Different species have different requirements, and a heavy canopy can limit biodiversity beneath, which is why forest edges/transition zones typically contain the greatest species variety. Glades occur naturally when a canopy tree falls, but can be created through felling or by planned randomisation in planting, yielding a more natural woodland layout. Cutting tracks (‘rides’) with wide verges also opens up a woodland, and provides opportunity for species variety (and for localised, natural succession at the verges). Scalloping the route of the track is good practice, as it prevents wind tunnelling and creates sheltered, warmer pockets for the benefit of many species.
Felling and tree surgery
Damaged trees are more susceptible to disease and infestation. Dead trees and hanging limbs pose a danger to anyone walking, working or playing underneath. Constant assessment is needed to spot potential hazards, especially following episodes of high wind or heavy snow and ice. Hazards must be dealt with right away in areas frequented by users. However, dead trees which are far enough from human activity that they pose no risk should be left standing for the habitat they provide for many species. Wood which does not harbour harmful diseases or pests should be left on the ground in situ for the same reason, and to improve the loam through decomposition. Chipping is a good option for wood which cannot be left in place, as it hastens rotting, can provide a good medium for fungus growth and has practical uses on a forest school site, delineating paths or creating an even floor covering if required.
Control of invasive and overpopulated species
Invasive species are not in balance with the ecosystems they occupy, having no natural predators, susceptibility to local diseases, or competition from native species, and so tend to overpopulate. Invasive species include both flora and fauna and are a concern throughout the British Isles. First, accurate identification is essential so that desirable species are not compromised. Repeated, manual clearing or controlled burning may be required for invasive plants (such as Japanese knotweed), while chemical control or biological alternatives may be needed for insects (such as Asian Longhorn Beetle). Other fauna (such as deer) may require periodic culling if their numbers threaten their habitat due to, e.g. overgrazing, and to prevent the spread of disease. The controlled introduction of native species is a proactive way to improve ecological variety and balance.
Involving Clients in Woodland Management
Most forest management activities must be the responsibility of capable or professional adults, however to foster understanding and stewardship, children may be included in many beneficial activities for the management of their own Forest School site.
Identification
Children can be encouraged to recognise on-site species. This will allow them to identify native from non-native species, and the children will feel more comfortable and careful in an environment they understand.
Litter picking
Should the site be frequented by other users, it’s possible that litter may need clearing. While adults should ensure broken glass, metal, or other harmful materials are removed prior to arrival, other items may be tidied by children if proper gloves and rubbish sacks are available to use.
Invasive species control
Children able to identify invasive plant species might be encouraged to help clear them to make room for native species, provided they are safe to handle and readily identified.
Planting native species
Children may enjoy restoration activities such as planting native shrubs, trees and flowers, or scattering seeds of native meadow plants to watch them grow. Throughout the year, they will be able to appreciate the knock-on effects of improving biodiversity on and around their site.
Care
One of the best management strategies is to encourage children to limit damage (by their own actions) to the species on their site, such as by following ‘no pick, no break, no strip, no take’ rules. Sticks and other natural materials should be left on-site. The children might enjoy making signs to help remind themselves and other users of their responsibilities.
Planning and development
Should there be opportunity for site development, children can be involved in the decision-making process, such as by choosing which kinds of trees and shrubs to plant and how (e.g. ‘in rows or randomly? What does the natural woodland look like?’), placement of features such as a fire pit/paths/hedges, and inclusion of habitat ‘enhancement’, such as bird boxes, bee houses, and shelters for amphibians and other herps.
Most importantly…
Should a management project be undertaken on or around the forest school site which alters the appearance of the site (such as tree felling or limb removal, coppicing, clearing) children may feel distressed by the ‘harming’ or ‘invasion’ of the site. The changes should be directly addressed with the children, with an explanation of why these activities occurred so that they see them as a necessary part of keeping the woodland healthy and safe for them to use. This will hopefully relieve anxiety and give the children the opportunity to respond in their own, informed way, such as by exploring a new stump, monitoring brush piles for animals, etc.
Flora and Fauna and Fungus (oh, my!)
Flora and fauna identification is important for many reasons:
Health and Safety
It is important to establish what species are on site and know their potential for harm, such as by toxicity or ability to sting, cut, puncture, cause a rash or other more serious allergic reaction: for example, beds of nettles, or the existence of a bee hive inside the hollow trunk of a tree on site. Some species will require logging in a risk assessment, or may potentially harm specific clients, who are allergic, for example, and this will need to be added to a person-specific risk assessment.
Site management
It is important to distinguish valued native species needing protection from invasive species which should be controlled or eradicated. Understanding the growth pattern and other characteristics of different plant species will aid in site planning and development. If the seasonal patterns of fauna in the area are known, the leader is more likely to ensure they are not disturbed either by site development activity or clients.
Teaching and learning
Most importantly, clients will want to know what species they are observing on site. A Forest School Leader will therefore need to know what they are likely to be asked about (at different stages/seasons) to pass on knowledge. Learning to identify species will have a number of positive effects for children:
· They will know what is safe from what to avoid, and the potential effects of handling or ingesting different plants.
· It will foster self-worth, and confidence in the natural environment as they will be more familiar with their surroundings, even as seasons change and species live out their natural life cycle.
· It will encourage appreciation and stewardship as they learn what to value and how to take care of it.
· It will improve observation skills and attention to detail.
· It will lead on to further interests, such as the history and folklore of plants and animals, and what uses various growing things can be put to.
It is important to note that for every benefit to the clients, the Leader will be the first recipient of that same benefit through gaining the necessary knowledge and experience; therefore, it is essential for the personal and professional development of every Forest School Leader.